Conquests, wars and power shifts in the ancient world
Antiquity was marked by the expansion of great powers that competed for territories, resources and strategic positions in the Mediterranean and the Near East: Macedonia, Persia, Carthage and Rome spearheaded campaigns that altered the borders and power relations of their time.
Events occurring in the month of October allow us to revisit some of these changes, from the expansion of Alexander the Great to the political rise of Constantine.
October 331 BC – Alexander the Great conquers Babylon
Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, a kingdom located north of ancient Greece, had been leading a campaign of conquest through Asia since 336 BC, his main adversary being Darius III, king of the Achaemenid Empire, the great power that then dominated Persia and vast territories in the Near East, Egypt and Central Asia.
After defeating Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela, Alexander advanced toward Babylon and entered the city in October 331 BC, at which time local authorities accepted his arrival and Babylon came under his rule.
Babylon was one of the main cities of Mesopotamia and was notable for its economic, administrative and religious importance. Its conquest provided Alexander with a strategic position to continue the campaign into the interior of Persian territory, from where he advanced, conquering territories until Darius III progressively lost control of his empire.
October 19, 202 BC – Battle of Zama
The Battle of Zama pitted Rome against Carthage in North Africa during the Second Punic War, a war sparked by the rivalry between the two powers for control of the western Mediterranean.
The Roman army was led by Publius Cornelius Scipio, while the Carthaginian troops were under the command of Hannibal. After years of fighting, Scipio took the war into Carthaginian territory and both armies clashed at Zama in 202 BC.
Following Rome's victory, a peace treaty was signed that considerably reduced Carthaginian military and political power, limited their territories, and forced them to surrender a large part of their fleet and pay a significant indemnity to the victor.
Furthermore, the victory put an end to the Second Punic War and solidified Rome as the primary power in the western Mediterranean.
October 23, 42 BC – Second Battle of Philippi
The Second Battle of Philippi was fought on October 23, 42 BC in Macedonia, during the civil war that arose after the assassination of Julius Caesar.
On that day, Mark Antony and Octavian, allied to maintain control of the Roman State, faced the forces of Marcus Junius Brutus and other republican leaders who had participated in the conspiracy against Caesar, in a battle that took place a few weeks after the first Battle of Philippi, also in October.
Brutus's defeat ended the main military force of the republican leaders.
Brutus committed suicide after the defeat, and Mark Antony and Octavian remained the primary victors of the war, reinforcing their control over Roman territories and opening a new stage in the power struggle that would end with them facing each other years later.
October 13, 54 AD – Death of Emperor Claudius
Claudius, Roman Emperor since 41 AD, died in Rome on October 13, 54 AD, after thirteen years of rule.
During his reign, he expanded the territory of the Roman Empire, incorporated Britain, and strengthened the imperial administration, and his death opened the succession to Nero, son of Agrippina the Younger and adoptive heir of Claudius, who was sixteen years old when he came to power.
Ancient sources offer different versions regarding the circumstances of his death, and several mention potential poisoning.
The arrival of Nero began a new phase of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. During the first years of his reign, Agrippina exerted significant political influence, while the young emperor was also advised by Seneca and supported by the military authority of Sextus Afranius Burrus.
October 28, 312 AD – Battle of the Milvian Bridge
The battle pitted Constantine, the Roman emperor who ruled the western provinces of the Empire, against Maxentius, another emperor who controlled Rome and part of Italy, as both were competing for power in a time of wars between different Roman rulers.
The confrontation took place next to the Milvian Bridge, over the Tiber River, near Rome, on October 28, 312.
Constantine defeated Maxentius's army, who died during the retreat, and the following day he entered Rome and remained as the primary authority of the Empire.
The victory weakened the system of government known as the tetrarchy and increased Constantine's political power.
The event also became linked to the history of Christianity, as later Christian sources associated the campaign with the conversion of Constantine.
